Roy F. Baumeister & Kathleen D. Vohs, “The Pursuit of Meaningfulness in Life,” in Handbook of Positive Psychology, eds. Charles R. Snyder & Shane J. Lo-pez, 608–618 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 613.
Lisa L. Harlow, Michael D. Newcomb & Peter M. Bentler, “Depression, Self-Derogation, Substance Use, and Suicide Ideation: Lack of Purpose in Life as a Mediational Factor,” Journal of Clinical Psy-chology 42, no. 1 (1986): 5–21; Craig J. Bryan, William B. Elder, Mary McNaughton-Cassill, Augustin Osman, Ann Marie Hernandez & Sybil Allison, “Meaning in Life, Emotional Distress, Suicidal Ide-ation, and Life Functioning in an Active Duty Mil-itary Sample,” The Journal of Positive Psychology 8, no. 5 (2013): 444–452. For a national-level comparison of rates of meaningfulness and rates of suicide, see Shigehiro Oishi & Ed Diener, “Residents of Poor Nations Have a Greater Sense of Meaning in Life Than Residents of Wealthy Nations,” Psycho-logical Science 25, no. 2 (2014): 422–430.
See Michael F. Steger, “Meaning and Well-Being,” in Handbook of Well-Being, eds. Ed Diener, Shigehiro Oishi & Louis Tay (Salt Lake City, UT: DEF Pub-lishers, 2018).
See Randy Cohen, Chirag Bavishi & Alan Rozanski, “Purpose in Life and Its Relationship to All-Cause Mortality and Cardiovascular Events: A Meta-Analysis,” Psychosomatic Medicine 78, no. 2 (2016): 122–133 for a meta-analysis of ten prospective studies with a total of 136,265 participants.
Viktor Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning (New York: Washington Square Press, 1963), p. 164. The quote is originally from Nietzsche’s book Twilight of the Idols.
Alasdair Maclntyre, After Virtue, 3rd ed. (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2007).
See especially Christian Welzel, Freedom Rising: Human Empowerment and the Quest for Emancipation (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013).
Tim Kreider, “The ‘Busy’ Trap,” New York Times, June 30, 2012. https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.c0m/2012/06/30/the-busy-trap/.
Iddo Landau, Finding Meaning in an Imperfect World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), 205.
Томас Карлейль – британский писатель, публицист, историк и философ шотландского происхождения.
Алан Уилсон Уотс – британский философ, писатель и лектор, известен как переводчик и популяризатор восточной философии для западной аудитории.
Экзистенциальная тревога – осознание возможности и неустранимости смерти, осознание своего небытия, всеобщий глубинный страх конечности жизни и ответственности, налагаемой ею за собственные решения человека.
This view of the human condition is derived from William James and John Dewey, two key figures in the pragmatist philosophical tradition. See Frank Martela, “Pragmatism as an Attitude,” in Nordic Studies in Pragmatism 3: Action, Belief and Inquiry – Pragmatist Perspectives on Science, Society and Religion, ed. Ulf Zackariasson, 187–207 (Helsinki: Nordic Pragmatism Network, 2015), and the introduction of my second dissertation, Frank Martela, A Pragmatist Inquiry into the Art of Living: Seeking Reasonable and Life-Enhancing Values within the Fallible Human Condition (Helsinki: University of Helsinki, 2019).
Albert Camus, Myth of Sisyphus, trans. Justin O’Brien (New York: Vintage Books, 1955).
В греческой мифологии это описывается так: Сизиф, потомок Прометея и сын царя Эола, гордился хитростью ума и всезнанием. Подсмотрев похищение Зевсом нимфы Эгины, он не преминул сообщить об этом ее отцу, богу реки Асопу, в обмен на дарование источников воды его родному городу Коринфу. Зевс низринул Сизифа в Аид, где тот вечно занят бесплодным и тяжким трудом, вкатывая на гору громадный камень, неизменно скатывающийся вниз.
Todd May, A Significant Life: Human Meaning in a Silent Universe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015), ix.
Robert N. Bellah, Richard P. Madsen, William M. Sullivan, Ann Swidler & Steven M. Tipton, Habits of the Heart (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985). The quotes below are from pages 20–22 and 76.
Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism Is a Humanism, trans. Carol Macomber (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 29.
Институт Гэллапа (англ. American Institute of Public Opinion) – американский институт общественного мнения, а также другие учреждения по изучению общественного мнения, основанные профессором-социологом Джорджем Гэллапом.
E.g., Angus Deaton, “Income, Health and Well-Being Around the World: Evidence from the Gallup World Po Yi,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 22, no. 2 (2008): 53–72.
Shigehiro Oishi & Ed Diener, “Residents of Poor Nations Have a Greater Sense of Meaning in Life Than Residents of Wealthy Nations,” Psychological Science 25, no. 2 (2014): 422–430.
These three dimensions of absurdity were identified by Joe Mintoff. See Joe Mintoff, “Transcending Absurdity,” Ratio 21, no. 1 (2008): 64–84.
Neil deGrasse Tyson, Astrophys ics for People in a Hurry (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2017), 13.
Thomas Nagel, “The Absurd,” The Journal of Philosophy, 68, no. 20 (1971): 716–727, 717.
Пер. А. Богдановского.
Пер. В.И. Коган.
Mintoff, “Transcending Absurdity.”
Leo Tolstoy, Confession, trans. David Patterson (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1983), 49.
Carlin Flora, “The Pursuit of Happiness,” Psychology Today, January 2009. Available online: https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/articles/200901/the-pursuit-happiness.
Darrin M. McMahon, “From the Happiness of Virtue to the Virtue of Happiness: 400 b.c.-a.d. 1780,” Daedalus 133, no. 2 (2004): 5–17.
Чосер Джефри – средневековый английский поэт, «отец английской поэзии».
Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales, rendered into Modern English by J.U. Nilson (Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 2004), 215.
See, e.g., Roy F. Baumeister, “How the Self Became a Problem: A Psychological Review of Historical Research,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52, no. 1 (1987), 163–176.
For a history of happiness, see especially Darrin M. McMahon, The Pursuit of Happiness: A History from the Greeks to the Present (London: Allen Lane, 2006).
In 1689, John Locke declared that the “pursuit of happiness” moved the human. John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (London: Penguin Books, 1689/1997), 240. See also McMahon, “From the Happiness of Virtue to the Virtue of Happiness.”
See, e.g., Charles Taylor, The Ethics of Authenticity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991).
The exact definition of happiness is a big debate within Western philosophy and psychology, with some associating happiness with life satisfaction, others with the abundance of positive emotions and feelings, and still others building more complex accounts of happiness as an individual responding favorably, in emotional terms, to one’s life. But for our present discussion, we don’t need to settle on an exact definition of happiness, as what I am going to say about it applies to all definitions of happiness that see it as some set of subjective feelings, emotions, or favorable responses to life. For discussion about the definition of happiness, see, e.g., Daniel M. Haybron, The Pursuit of Unhappiness: The Elusive Psychology of Weil-Being (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008).
Luo Lu & Robin Gilmour, “Culture and Conceptions of Happiness: Individual Oriented and Social Oriented SWB,” Journal of Happiness Studies 5, no. 3 (2004): 269–291.
Эрик Вейнер – американский мыслитель и путешественник. Работал корреспондентом Национального общественного радио.
Eric Weiner, The Geography of Bliss (New York: Hachette Book Group, 2008), 316–318.
Weiner, Geography of Bliss, 318.
Iris B. Mauss, Maya Tamir, Craig L. Anderson & Nicole S. Savino, “Can Seeking Happiness Make People Unhappy? Paradoxical Effects of Valuing Happiness,” Emotion 11, no. 4 (2011): 807–815. See also Maya Tamir & Brett Q. Ford, “Should People Pursue Feelings That Feel Good or Feelings That Do Good? Emotional Preferences and Well-Being,” Emotion 12, no. 5 (2012): 1061–1070.
Iris B. Mauss, Nicole S. Savino, Craig L. Anderson, Max Weisbuch, Maya Tamir & Mark L. Laudenslager, “The Pursuit of Happiness Can Be Lonely,” Emotion 12, no. 5 (2012): 908–912.
For people having some degree of depressive symptoms, constant reporting of their happiness levels can be detrimental for their well-being. See Tamlin S. Conner & Katie A. Reid, “Effects of Intensive Mobile Happiness Reporting in Daily Life,” Social Psychological and Personality Science 3, no. 3 (2012): 315–323.
Many philosophers tend to see happiness and meaningfulness as two separate and fundamental values in human life. See Thaddeus Metz, Meaning in Life: An Analytic Study (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), chapter 4; and Susan Wolf, “Meaningfulness: A Third Dimension of the Good Life,” Foundations of Science 21, no. 2 (2016): 253–269.
In philosopher Robert Nozick’s thought experiment about an experience machine providing all possible pleasures is the classic example of this. People are arguably not too eager to plug into such a machine. See Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (Padstow: Blackwell, 1974), 42.
Пер. Е. Цветковой.
John F. Helliwell, Richard R. Layard & Jeffrey D. Sachs, eds. World Happiness Report 2019 (New York: Sustainable Development Solutions Network, 2019). See also previous World Happiness Reports.
See Jakub Marian, “Number of Metal Bands per Capita in Europe,” https://jakubmarian.com/number-of-metal-bands-per-capita-in-europe/.
Children of Bodom – финская англоязычная группа из города Эспоо, исполняющая музыку в стиле мелодик-дэт-метал с элементами различных других направлений метала.
John F. Helliwell et al., World Happiness Report 2019.
E.g., Max Haller & Markus Hadler, “How Social Relations and Structures Can Produce Happiness and Unhappiness: An International Comparative Analysis,” Social Indicators Research 75, no. 2 (2006): 169–216; Ronald Inglehart, Robert Foa, Christopher Peterson & Christian Welzel, “Development, Freedom, and Rising Happiness: A Global Perspective (1981–2007),” Perspectives on Psychological Science 3, no. 4 (2008): 264–285.
Jon Clifton, “People Worldwide Are Reporting a Lot of Positive Emotions,” May 21, 2014. http://news.gallup.com/poll/169322/people-worldwide-reporting-lot-positive-emotions.aspx.
World Health Organization, Global Health Estimates 2015: DALYs by Cause, Age, Sex, by Country and by Region, 2000–2015 (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2016).
Compare, for example, these two: Dheeraj Rai, Pedro Zitko, Kelvyn Jones, John Lynch & Richard Araya, “Country and Individual Level Socioeconomic Determinants of Depression: Multilevel Cross-National Comparison,” The British Journal of Psychiatry 202, no. 3 (2013): 195–203; and Alize J. Ferrari, Fiona J. Charlson, Rosana E. Norman, Scott B. Patten, Greg Freedman, Christopher J.L. Murray, et al., “Burden of Depressive Disorders by Country, Sex, Age, and Year: Findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010,” PLOSMedicine 10, no. 11 (2013): 61001547.
See Brett Q. Ford, Phoebe Lam, Oliver P. John & Iris B. Mauss, “The Psychological Health Benefits of Accepting Negative Emotions and Thoughts: Laboratory, Diary, and Longitudinal Evidence,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 115, no. 6 (2018): 1075–1092.
The relationship is logarithmic rather than linear, but whether there is a satiation point for life satisfaction is still debated among researchers. Positive affect has generally weaker relations with wealth and there the satiation point is more readily observed. See Daniel Kahneman & Angus Deaton, “High Income Improves Evaluation of Life But Not Emotional Well-Being,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107, no. 38 (2010): 16489–16493; Eugenio Proto & Aldo Rustichini, “A Reassessment of the Relationship Between GDP and Life Satisfaction,” FLOS ONE 8, no. 11 (2013): 679358; and Daniel W. Sacks, Betsy Ayer Stevenson & Justin Wolfers, “The New Stylized Facts About Income and Subjective Well Being,” Emotion 12, no. 6 (2012): 1181–1187.
Andrew T. Jebb, Louise Tay, Ed Diener & Shigehiro Oishi, “Happiness, Income Satiation and Turning Points Around the World,” Nature Human Behaviour, no. 1 (2018): 33–38.
Jonathan Haidt, Happiness Hypothesis: Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom (New York: Basic Books, 2006), 89.
Консьюмеризм – здесь: культ потребления, потребительство.
Chuck Palahniuk, Fight Club (London: Vintage Books, 2010), 149.
Statista, “Media Advertising Spending in the United States from 2015 to 2022 (in billion U.S. dollars),” March 28, 2019, https://www.statista.com/statistics/272314/advertising-spending-in-the-us/.
Секулярный – свободный от церковного влияния; светский.
Здесь: особенность поведения, мысли.
Barry Schwartz, The Paradox of Choice: Why More Is Less (New York: HarperCollins, 2004).
Herbert A. Simon, “Rational Choice and the Structure of the Environment,” Psychological Review 63, no. 2 (1956): 129–138. Simon contrasts the strategies of “satisfice” and “optimize.”
See Nathan N. Cheek & Barry Schwartz, “On the Meaning and Measurement of Maximization,” Judgment and Decision Making 11, no. 2 (2016): 126–146.
Samantha J. Heintzelman & Laura A. King, “Life Is Pretty Meaningful,” American Psychologist 69, no. 6 (2014): 561–574.
The Health and Retirement Study, an ongoing longitudinal study of Americans over age 50 sponsored by the National Institute on Aging at the University of Michigan, http://hrsonline.isr.umich.edu/. These results are reported in Heintzelman & King, “Life Is Pretty Meaningful.”
Rosemarie Kobau, Joseph Sniezek, Matthew M. Zack, Richard E. Lucas & Adam Burns, “Well-Being Assessment: An Evaluation of Well-Being Scales for Public Health and Population Estimates of Well-Being Among US Adults,” Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being 2 (2010): 272–297.
Oishi & Diener, “Residents of Poor Nations.”
Fei-Hsiu Hsiao, Guey-Mei Jow, Wen-Hung Kuo, King-Jen Chang, Yu-Fen Liu, Rainbow T. Ho, et al., “The Effects of Psychotherapy on Psychological Well-Being and Diurnal Cortisol Patterns in Breast Cancer Survivors,” Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 81 (2012): 173–182.
Heintzelman & King, “Life Is Pretty Meaningful,” 567.
Sometimes people might be disillusioned and unreliable reporters of their own emotional states so we should take their reports with a grain of salt. But there is no evidence of bias so systematic that it would render subjective reports totally worthless, most of the time they probably are relatively accurate. See, e.g., OECD, OECD Guidelines on Measuring Subjective Well-Being (Paris: OECD Publishing, 2013). Be that as it may, I side with the psychologists in focusing on the experienced meaning of people rather than believing there to be some outside standard that can be used to judge the meaningfulness of people’s existence no matter their own experience.
Пер. Е. Цветковой.
Jon H. Kaas, “The Evolution of Brains from Early Mammals to Humans,” Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science 4, no. 1 (2013): 33–45. Also see Joseph R. Burger, Menshian A. George, Claire Leadbetter & Farhin Shaikh, “The Allometry of Brain Size in Mammals,” Journal of Mammalogy 100, no. 2 (2019): 276–283.
Юваль Ной Харари – израильский военный историк-медиевист, профессор исторического факультета Еврейского университета в Иерусалиме, автор международного бестселлера «Sapiens: Краткая история человечества».
Yuval Harari, Sapiens. A Brief History of Humankind (New York: Harper, 2015).
See William A. Roberts, “Are Animals Stuck in Time?” Psychological Bulletin 128, no. 3 (2002): 473–489. Although see also William A. Roberts, “Mental Time Travel: Animals Anticipate the Future,” Current Biology 17, no. 11 (2007): R418–R420, where evidence is reviewed for the capability of some animals to anticipate the future and have episodic-like memories. As with most things separating humans from animals, instead of a clear dichotomy, humans just have much more of what some animals have little of.
Antti Kauppinen, “Meaningfulness and Time,” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 84, no. 2 (2012): 345–377, 368.
Нейровизуализация – общее название нескольких методов, позволяющих визуализировать структуру, функции и биохимические характеристики мозга. Включает компьютерную томографию, магниторезонансную томографию и т. п.
Adam Waytz, Hal E. Hershfield & Diana I. Tamir, “Mental Simulation and Meaning in Life,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 108, no. 2 (2015): 336–355, study 1.
Human sociality and living in large tribes most probably had much to do with why we developed the unique capacity for reflection as, e.g., Dunbar has argued. Also the need for justification most probably had much to do with the need to justify our actions to others as, e.g., Haidt has argued. See Robin I. M. Dunbar, “The Social Brain Hypothesis,” Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews 6, no. 5 (1998): 178–190. And Jonathan Haidt, “The Emotional Dog and Its Rational Tail: A Social Intuitionist Approach to Moral Judgment,” Psychological Review 108 (2001): 814–834.
See Frank Martela & Michael F. Steger, “The Meaning of Meaning in Life: Coherence, Purpose, and Significance as the Three Facets of Meaning,” Journal of Positive Psychology, 11, no. 5 (2016): 531–545.
Erich Fromm, Escape from Freedom (New York: Avon Books, 1965), p. viii. The first edition of the book was published in 1941.
Fromm, Escape from Freedom, xii.
Пер. А.В. Александрова.
Michael F. Steger, Yoshito Kawabata, Satoshi Shimai & Keiko Otake, “The Meaningful Life in Japan and the United States: Levels and Correlates of Meaning in Life,” Journal of Research in Personality 42, no. 3 (2008), 660–678.
Charles Taylor, A Secular Age (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007). The description of the worldview of people living in the 1500s is mainly based on chapter 1 of Taylor’s book.
Taylor, A Secular Age, 42, based on Stephen Wilson, The Magical Universe (London: Hambledon & London, 2004).
Max Weber, The Sociology of Religion (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971).
There is, of course, a big leap in worldviews between belief in local spirits and one omnipotent creator God, but we have no space to go through the so-called axial revolution and how that transformed our worldviews.
Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, trans. Robert C. Bartlett & Susan D. Collins (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2012).
Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, no6a:i7–24.
Telos (греч. конец, цель) – в древнегреческой философии конечная цель чего-либо; один из четырех основных принципов бытия в философии Аристотеля.
Summum bonum (лат. высшее благо) – Цицерон в своей работе «О высшем благе и высшем зле» писал: «Мы ищем, что является предельным и последним из благ. По мнению всех философов, оно должно быть таким, чтобы все измерялось им, а само оно – ничем вне его».
Note that Hochschild argues that this question was asked up to the twentieth century, while here I am arguing that meaning of life started to replace it in the nineteenth century. Joshua P. Hochschild, “What ‘the Meaning of Life’ Replaced,” https://thevirtuebl0g.c0m/2017/12/18/what-the-meaning-of-life-replaced/.