English grammar: 100 main rules - читать онлайн

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Positive Degree of Adjectives

1. Description

a busy street, a clever dog, a dull day, an expensive ring, a good attitude, a jealous man, an important signal, a weak accent, young people

Note

Qualitative adjectives can be modified by adverbs of degree.

a dreadfully dull day, extremely hot weather, a fairly large message, a hugely important signal, an immenselyfamous picture, incredibly useful advice, an intensely busy street, a little/a bit expensive ring, a rather good attitude, a reasonably weak accent, quite an interesting list, a slightly somber event, a too jealous husband, an unusually clever dog, very young people

2. Comparison

1) Equality

as + adjective + as

The white kitten is as cute as the grey one.

Playing games is as important as studying.

2) Inferiority

not so + adjective (+ as)

His idea is not so stupid.

The view did not turn to be so splendid as we had expected.

half as + adjective (+ as)

Jimmy is half as tall as Jonny.

Our house is half as big as the neighbours'.

3) Superiority

twice (three times) as + adjective (+ as)

The way was twice as long as yesterday.

Olivia's typing speed is three times as fast as Andrew's.

Comparative Degree of Adjectives

The comparative degree demonstrates the difference between two objects.

1) Superiority

– Most one- and two-syllable adjectives form the comparative degree by adding – er ending.

adjective + – er

clever – cleverer, dull – duller, large – larger, weak – weaker, young – younger

Apple juice is sweeter than orange juice.

These tickets are cheaper than those ones.

Note

– Adjectives ending in – y change the – y into – i and add – er.

busy – busier, pretty – prettier, lazy – lazier, funny – funnier, juicy – juicier

Cf.: shy – shyer, sly – slyer, grey – greyer

– One-syllable adjectives with a short vowel followed by a consonant double this consonant and add – er.

big – bigger, hot – hotter, fat – fatter, thin – thinner

– Several two-syllable adjectives and all three- (and more) syllable adjectives form the comparative degree with more.

more + adjective

more expensive, more famous, more important, more interesting, more profitable, more somber, more useful

The new hairdo makes Andrew more handsome.

Time is more valuable than money.

2) Inferiority

less + adjective

less busy, less clever, less hot, less expensive, less famous, less important, less interesting

This way is less easy than the way Andrew offers.

I prefer less dangerous driving.

Note

Use certain adverbs to enhance the meaning of comparative adjectives.

far/much/a lot

slightly/a little/a bit

Olivia is far prettier than her sister.

This will sound a bit more polite.

Note

It is possible to use the double comparison of adjectives combined with change-of-state verbs.

adjective-er + and + adjective-er

more adjective + and + more adjective

The days are getting shorter and shorter.

The word is becoming more and more ridiculous.

Note

Use the following combination to emphasize the inevitable consequence in degree change of comparative adjectives.

The adjective-er, the adjective-er

The more adjective, the more adjective

The sweeter products are, the unhealthier they are.

The more luxurious goods are, the more expensive they are.

Superlative Degree of Adjectives

The superlative degree demonstrates differences among three or more objects.

1) Superiority

– Most one- and two-syllable adjectives form the comparative degree by adding – est ending.

the adjective + – est

clever – the cleverest, dull – the dullest, large – the largest, weak – the weakest, young – the youngest

– Several two-syllable adjectives and all three- (and more) syllable adjectives form the comparative degree with most.

the most + adjective

the most expensive, the mostfamous, the most important, the most interesting, the most profitable, the most somber, the most useful

2) Inferiority

the least + adjective

the least busy, the least clever, the least hot, the least expensive, the least famous, the least important, the least interesting

The least strong cheese will do for this sort of wine.

What are the least prestigious jobs?

Substantivized Adjectives

the + adjective

1) substantivized adjectives denote a whole class of persons characterized by a specific feature. In most cases such adjectives agree with a plural verb.

the elderly, the handicapped, the lonely, the needy

Olivia's aunt works in school for the blind.

The rich also cry.

2) substantivized adjectives may as well refer to the whole nation.

the Japanese, the English, the Dutch

The ancient Chinese first invented paper.

The Welsh try to preserve their language and culture.

3) A number of substantivized adjectives even take the plural ending – s, which let them pass into the category of nouns.

the marines, the moderns, the nobles, the regulars, the Russians

The Conservatives are leading in the polls.

If you want to see the true measure of a man, watch how he treats his inferiors, not his equals.

4) substantivized adjectives indicate abstract notions. such adjectives agree with a singular verb.

the future, the past, the present, the plural, the singular, the unknown, the unreal, the variable, the visible

The obvious is fabulous, but the fabulous is obvious.

You should use the Future Simple in this sentence.

Syntactic Functions of Adjectives

1. Attribute

We liked that warm meeting.

I hear some pleasant music.

Note

There is a particular order for adjectives to describe a noun.

Opinion – Size – Shape – Colour – Pattern – Age

– Origin – Material – Purpose + Noun

a clever young British professor

two nice tiny round black old metal musical boxes

that beautiful swift white new sailing boat

2. Predicate

The meeting was warm.

Your mother looks sad.

I feel good about the offer.

A predicate adjective follows a linking verb (to be, to seem, to appear, to look, to taste, to smell, to feel, to sound), but it refers to the subject of the sentence.

3. Subject and Object (Substantivized adjectives)

The unemployed demanded concrete programs of public works.

The young should help the old.

Fractional Numerals

Common fraction

The numerator is a cardinal number; the denominator is an ordinal number.

1/2 – one (a) half

1/3 – one (a) third

1/4 – one (a) quarter

1/5 – one (a) fifth

1/6 – one (a) sixth

If the numenator is more than one, then the denominator is used in plural.

2/3 – two thirds

3/4 – three quarters

5/6 – five sixths

Decimal fraction

Each digit is pronounced separately.

25. 105 – two five point one nought five

0.746 – nought point seven four six

Operations with Numerals

1. Addition

1+2=3 – one plus two is (equals) three; 1, 2 – the addends, 3 – the sum

2. Subtraction

3–2=1 – three minus two is (makes) one; 3 – the minuend, 2 – the subtrahend, 1 – the difference

3. Multiplication

3*2=6 – three multiplied by two/twice three is six; 3 – the multiplicand, 2 – the multiplier, 6 – the product

4. Division

6:2=3 – six divided by two is three; 6 – the dividend, 2 – the divisor, 3 – the quotient

Syntactical Functions of Numerals

1. Attribute

Do you know the seven wonders? This is Andrew's third trip abroad.

2. Subject

Four of them didn't join us.

2004, 2008 and 2012 are leap years.

3. Predicative

They were the first.

It's five o'clock.

4. Object

How many apples has he eaten? He's eaten three.

Show me those two, please.

Note

Intensive pronouns do not substitute nouns, but intensify their meaning.

You must make that choice yourself.

Andrew repaired the bike himself.

We want to go there ourselves.

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns point to a certain object or person that can be either near or far in distance or time.

Note

1) Attribute

This situation is incredible.

We met that man on the station.

Would you quit your job under these circumstances?

Those shoes were so cute!

That girl has such a voice!

Such rules usually take effect.

They work at the same department.

Why are you asking me the very same questions?

It's possible to use demonstrative pronouns before the word one.

These apples are sweeter than those ones.

Andrew is an intelligent young man. Yes, he is such one.

That's the same one I've been looking for!

The demostrative pronoun may be positioned before the adjective that refers to the same noun.

This pretty girl is my sister.

What are these strange conclusions?

It's such a wonderful life.

It's always the same old story.

2) The demonstrative pronoun can also be used in place of nouns.

– Subject

This must not continue.

Those were the days.

– Object

Will you take this?

Don't tell them that.

Andrew can't work with those.

some

– statements

I need some information about language courses.

Some of the m istakes were silly.

– offers and suggestions

Would you like some tea?

Shall I bring some refreshments?

– requests

Where can I get some paper?

Could you give us some examples?

any

– negative sentences

Olivia didn't know any of them.

It doesn't make any sense.

– questions

Have you got any questions?

Did any of Andrew's friends call him?

– if-clauses

I can lend her my cell phone if there's any need.

If you come across any problems, please, report us.

– statements

Contact any of our assistants.

Any answer will do.

Somebody phoned you ten minutes ago.

Would you like something to eat?

Can we take something to make notes on?

You may invite anyone.

Are they waiting for anybody?

Andrew has not found anything.

each

– only with countable nouns

– refers to two or more things or persons that should be regarded separately and individually

There were cars parked on each side of the street.

She kissed each of her children.

– agrees with a singular verb

There are four apartments in our building. Each of the apartments has its private entrance.

Each item was checked.

– However, if the pronoun each follows the plural subject, it agrees with the plural verb.

They each do their share of work.

I have two people in the office and we each have our own email.

every

– only with countable nouns

– refers either to indefinite number of things/persons or to a group of things/persons considered as a whole.

We could see every star in the night sky.

Every player in the team should cooperate.

– with modifiers such as nearly, almost, practically

Olivia knows almost every neighbour.

Practically every problem has practical solutions.

– with time words such as minute, hour, day

There's a bus every ten minutes.

Every morning Andrew goes jogging in the park.

– makes compound pronouns with – body, – one, – thing

Everybody likes presents.

They invited everyone but James and Karen.

Everything's done by computer nowadays.

Note

the pronoun everyone differs from the word combination every one.

Everyone is a synonym to everybody and refers only to persons.

Everyone enjoyed the movie.

Every one is a synonym to each one and refers both to persons and things.

He watched a lot of movies and enjoyed every one.

– agrees with singular verb

Every citizen is obliged to observe the constitution.

Each and every one of us has their own opinion.

either

– with countable nouns

– refers to two or more things or persons

There are shops at either end of the street.

Either of these books is useful.

Nick can wear watches on either hand.

Note

the pronoun either differs from the adverb either, which is used in negative sentences.

If you don't order the dessert, I won't either.

Olivia doesn't know his address, Andrew doesn't know either.

– agrees with a singular verb

Does either of you speak Chinese?

Has either of you two seen Harry?

all

– with uncountable nouns and plural countables

– has a generalized meaning

All children need love.

Olivia said good buy to them all.

– the pronoun all agrees with plural verb if it's used with plural countables; if it refers to uncountable nouns, then pronoun all agrees with singular verb.

All the students were ready.

All the milk was fresh.

All the book was torn out.

Note

You may use the whole + noun instead of all the + noun

when it goes with a singular countable noun.

The whole book was torn out.

– If all precedes other noun modifiers (the, this, my, etc), then it can be used either as all + noun, or all of + noun.

Andrew invited all his (all of his) friends.

It's important to answer all the (all of the) questions.

Note

Use all of before object pronouns, but just all after them.

Andrew invited all of them (them all).

All of you (You all) have various questions.

– As the subject it agrees with either singular or plural verb, that depends on the context.

All is well that ends well.

All have gone.

– If the subject is a personal pronoun, then all is put between and the verb.

We all decided to dinner out the next day.

They all skate in winter.

– If there is a linking verb, an auxiliary or modal one, then all goes after the first verb.

We are all here.

They have all seen the movie.

You should all take part in this conference.

Note

All is quite often substituted by comounds everybody, everyone, everything.

All are happy. => Everyone is happy.

All is ready. => Everything is ready.

both

– with plural countables

– refers to two persons or things

I like both (ties).

Both (applicants) are equally experienced.

– agrees with a plural verb

Which project is better? Both are good.

– Use of between both and another determiner.

Both of these restaurants are expensive.

Olivia knows both of his brothers.

– Use both of with a personal object pronoun (him, her, them, etc); use both after a personal subject pronoun (he, she, they).

Both of them (They both) are suitable.

It's a game that both of us (we both) can play.

many/much

– many with countable nouns; much with uncountable nouns

– refer to indefinitely large number of things or persons

Are there many books on the desk?

Will it take much time to get to the centre?

– mostly used in negative sentences and questions

How many friends have you got?

There isn't much sense in it.

– If many/much are determined by as, so, too, very, use them in affirmative sentences as well.

There were too many variants to choose.

They have changed so much this year.

– If many/much are the subject or the subject attribute, then they can be used in affirmative sentences too.

Much of the work has already been completed.

Many students attend extra classes.

Note

Words a lot (of), lots (of), a plenty (of) are commonly used in affirmative sentences.

We have a lot to discuss.

There are lots of easy ways to follow.

They still have plenty of snow.

few, little

– few with countables; little with uncountables

– refer to indefinitely small number off things or persons; the implied meaning is "not enough"

Nick is sad because he has few friends here.

There was little flour, so I couldn't bake a cake.

– The indefinite article a/an with the pronouns few/little changes the implied meaning for positive "enough".

John has a few friends there.

There was a little flour, so I could bake a cake.

– It is preferable to use any in negative sentences and questions.

Does John have any friends there?

Andy doesn't have any friends there.

Is there any flour at home?

There is no flour at all.

enough

– with both countable and uncountable nouns

– refers to indefinite but sufficient number of something

You have enough time to write an article.

Andrew told them enough.

one

– refers to an undetermined person in general

One cannot learn a language in three months.

One should pay taxes.

Note

In the informal language undetermined persons can be as well expressed by the pronouns you or they.

You must always try to do your best.

They say the weather is changing.

Note

The pronoun one can be used in the possessive form (one's) or in its reflexive form (oneself).

One must learn from one's mistakes.

One should be careful not to hurt oneself.

– agrees with a singular verb

One never knows what may happen.

More than one variant is appropriate.

– substitutes the noun to avoid repetition; often used in Which-questions

See those two handsome men? Andrew is the taller one.

Which dress has Olivia chosen? The red one.

Note

the plural form of the pronoun is also possible.

Andrew bought three apples: a red one and two yellow ones.

Your problems are the ones that understood by many parents.

other

– with countables and uncountables

– The implied meaning "different" is used for indefinite number of things or persons.

Can you bring other shoes, I don't like these ones.

I can't meet you today. Let's do it some other time.

Let's watch other movie, I'm scared.

others

– substitutes a plural noun

Others may know us better than we know ourselves.

Some tourists stay on the beach, others explore the town.

another

– only with singular countable nouns

– The implied meaning is "additional, one more".

Please give me another chance.

The example is not clear? Would you like another?

the other

– with countable plural or singular nouns

– The implied meaning "remaining, the rest" is for definite number of things or persons.

There are two pens on the desk – one is blue, the other is red.

You may take one or the other. You cannot take both.

the others

– substitutes plural nouns

There were three keys in the drawer. One is here, where are the others?

Don't forget the others.